conjugal.hair :BEWARE of the CREEPING MENACE of ISLAM. MOHAMMED was a SLAVER. MOHAMMEDANS have NO REGARD for HUMAN or CIVIL RIGHTS and the WESTERN HERITAGE of ENLIGHTENMENT vs ISLAM.conjugal.hair: asterix_fr75 post again your DENIAL that MOHAMMED didn't keep SLAVE CONCUBINES whom HE RAPED at WILLconjugal.hair: Mohammed was a NARCISSIST GONE MAD and sought to control and exercise power over defenseless children like AISHA

rebuttal:first of all islam isnt a creeping menace.in fact millions of ppl all over world are converting to islam of their own free will,fromamericas,europe,etc.noone is forced to convert to islam.number two,islam isnt arabs,islam is 1.5 billion muslims ,of wich arabs only compromise 14%. of the whole.hair cliams muhammed was aslayer.lol gee lets see what even western historians say about the myth of islam spread by sword.

Thomas Carlyle in 'Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History,' 1840
"The lies (Western slander) which well-meaning zeal has heaped round this man (Muhammad) are disgraceful to ourselves only." http://books.google.com/books?id=6cAZAAAAYAAJ&dq=Heroes+and+Hero+Worship+and+the+Heroic+in+History&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=bMqvSqXlOpTtlAeBm7XlBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
"A silent great soul, one of that who cannot but be earnest. He was to kindle the world, the world’s Maker had ordered so."”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlylehttp://www.amazon.co.uk/Muhammad-Hero-Prophet-Thomas-Carlyle/dp/8187570180
Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era.[1] He called economics "the dismal science", wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and became a controversial social commentator.[1

Arthur Stanley Tritton, D. Litt. (February 25, 1881 – November 8, 1973) was a British historian and scholar of Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_TrittonA. S. Tritton in 'Islam,' 1951 The picture of the Muslim soldier advancing with a sword in one hand and the Qur'an in the other is quite false.http://books.google.com/books?id=bo8gMQsfNm8C&dq=A.+S.+Tritton+books&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=cvI_bv-mNt&sig=6HP0ticgHfVbisT3j_ZoJgpWmAQ&hl=en&ei=JcqvSqOCBsjvlAeq4Z3jBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=27

Books by De Lacy O Leary
Arabia Before Muhammad: Trubner's Oriental Series - 2001 - 250 pageshttp://books.google.com/books?id=y3M7lHusi4UC&dq=De+Lacy+O+Leary&printsec=frontcover&source=an&hl=en&ei=ZcmvStQNlJqUB-Ou_csG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
A Short History of the Fatimid Khalifate .http://books.google.com/books?id=a5QVgePlWz0C&dq=De+Lacy+O+Leary&printsec=frontcover&source=an&hl=en&ei=ZcmvStQNlJqUB-Ou_csG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7
De Lacy O'Leary in 'Islam at the Crossroads,' London, 1923.
History makes it clear, however, that the legend of fanatical Muslims sweeping through the world and forcing Islam at the point of sword upon conquered races is one of the most fantastically absurd myths that historians have ever repeated.

Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737[1] – January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_GibbonGibbon in 'The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire' 1823
The good sense of Muhammad despised the pomp of royalty. The Apostle of God submitted to the menial offices of the family; he kindled the fire; swept the floor; milked the ewes; and mended with his own hands his shoes and garments. Disdaining the penance and merit of a hermit, he observed without effort of vanity the abstemious diet of an Arab.http://books.google.com/books?id=0MATAAAAYAAJ&dq=Gibbon+in+'The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=ejPi16sbXt&sig=hq6rcRE0mdzL0HgQAlStZB-g7JU&hl=en&ei=xMevSsC6HJDrlAfbzYHABg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3

Edward Montet, 'La Propagande Chretienne et ses Adversaries Musulmans,' Paris 1890. (Also in T.W. Arnold in 'The Preaching of Islam,' London 1913.)
"Islam is a religion that is essentially rationalistic in the widest sense of this term considered etymologically and historically....the teachings of the Prophet, the Qur'an has invariably kept its place as the fundamental starting point, and the dogma of unity of God has always been proclaimed therein with a grandeur a majesty, an invariable purity and with a note of sure conviction, which it is hard to find surpassed outside the pale of Islam....A creed so precise, so stripped of all theological complexities and consequently so accessible to the ordinary understanding might be expected to possess and does indeed possess a marvelous power of winning its way into the consciences of men."http://www.iiu.edu.my/deed/articles/muhammad.htmlhttp://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html

Mahatma Gandhi, statement published in 'Young India,'1924.
I wanted to know the best of the life of one who holds today an undisputed sway over the hearts of millions of mankind.... I became more than ever convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers, his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle. When I closed the second volume (of the Prophet's biography), I was sorry there was not more for me to read of that great life.http://books.google.com/books?id=bc53Vcr1eRYC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=ghandi+on+islam&source=bl&ots=gPQvN6NUOB&sig=jCYH2rXRkpvgW3UFEC1rZFKtvfM&hl=en&ei=ZcavSuT8H9DAlAfxlunrBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=20

The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History is a 1978 book by Michael H. Hart. It is a ranking of the 100 people who most influenced human historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_H._HartMichael Hart in "The 100, A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in the History," New York, 1978., p. 33 
"My choice of Muhammad (pbuh) to lead the list of world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in the history who was supremely successful on both the secular and religious level. It is probable that the relative influence of Islam has been larger than the combined influence of Jesus Christ and St. Paul on Christianity. It is this unparalleled combination of the secular and religious influence which I feel entitles Muhammad (pbuh) to be considered to be the most influential single figure in human history."http://books.google.com/books?id=jvbNRbDKY1wC&dq=Michael+Hart+100+most+influential&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=G8ivSq2TCo--lAe73eTeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
He was a research scientist at NASA before leaving to be a professor of physics at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas. He has also taught both astronomy and history of science at Anne Arundel Community College in Arnold, Maryland. His published work in peer-reviewed scientific journals includes several detailed computer simulations of atmospheric evolution.
Among Hart's articles was one, published in 1975, that gave scientific support for the conclusion that the only intelligent life in the Milky Way Galaxy resides on the planet Earth.

i can post this all day but because hairless,the retard made so many slanderous lies,i feel its best to move on to next issue.as i have proved,the myth that islam was spread by sword or barbaric is a lie,dispelled even by muhammeds enemies,and serious scholars,historians,as i have shown.ok so enxt is this claim(MOHAMMED was a SLAVER. MOHAMMEDANS have NO REGARD for HUMAN or CIVIL RIGHTS)The major juristic schools of Islam have historically accepted the institution of slavery.[1] Muhammad and those of the Sahaba (companions) who could afford it themselves owned slaves, freed many, and some of them acquired more from prisoners of war. Arabian slaves did benefit from the Islamic dispensations, which enormously improved their position through the reforms of a humanitarian tendency both at the time of Muhammad and the later early caliphs.[1] In Sharia (Islamic law), the topic of Islam and slavery is covered at great length. The legal legislations brought two major changes to the practice of slavery inherited from antiquity, from Ancient Rome, and from the Byzantium Empire, which were to have far-reaching effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_and_slavery#cite_note-Lewis-0 Traditional biographies of Muhammad give many examples where Muhammad's companions, at his direction, freed slaves in abundance. Abul Ala Maududi reports that Muhammad freed as many as 63 slaveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_and_slavery#cite_note-2Safiyya bint Huyayy,[7] according to Islamic account she adopted Islam and became a wife of Muhammad. She lived more than a decade after him as a widow and became involved in the first power politics of the early Muslim community and left a large inheritance to her Jewish family.
Maria al-Qibtiyya, a Coptic slave given to Muhammad by a Byzantine official. She gave birth to Ibrahim ibn Muhammad[7] whom Muhammad loved dearly. Some sources indicate that she was freed and became Muhammad's wife, while other sources dispute this.[8]
Sirin, Maria's sister. He gave her to the poet Hassan ibn Thabit who later freed and married her.Zayd ibn Harithah, was freed to become Muhammad's adopted son, until adoption was replaced with guardianship in Islam, upon which Muhammad became his guardian.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_and_slavery#cite_note-Zad116-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_and_slavery#cite_note-Zad116-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_and_slaveryhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.htmlReferences
^ a b c Lewis 1994, Ch.1
^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam
^ 'Human Rights in Islam'. Published by The Islamic Foundation (1976) - Leicester, U.K.
^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 453
^ Vol. 7-#344 and #346
^ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, "Zad al-Ma'ad", part 1, p160
^ a b c Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's female-slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Part I, p. 116
^ from "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir" (Book of the Major Classes) by Ibn Sa'd's
^ Q20
Levy, Reuben (Professor of Persian at the University of Cambridge). "The Social Structure of Islam". Cambridge University Press, 1969.
Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to Islamic Law. Clarendon Paperbacks, 1982. ISBN 0-19-825473

hair claims islam doesnt know civil rigths,interesting consider this.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia

The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (qiyas) used in Islamic law was similar to that of the common law legal system.[13] According to Justice Gamal Moursi Badr, Islamic law is like common law in that it "is not a written law" and the "provisions of Islamic law are to be sought first and foremost in the teachings of the authoritative jurists" (ulema), hence Islamic law may "be called a lawyer's law if common law is a judge's law."http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia#cite_note-Badr-2John Makdisi's The Islamic Origins of the Common Law in the North Carolina Law Review in 1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia#cite_note-Devichand-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia#cite_note-20It has been suggested by several scholars such as Professor John Makdisi, Jamila Hussain and Lawrence Rosen[22] that several fundamental English common law institutions may have been derived or adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England after the Norman conquest of England by the Normans, who conquered and inherited the Islamic legal administration of the Emirate of Sicily (see Arab-Norman culture), and "through the close connection between the Norman kingdoms of Roger II in Sicily — ruling over a conquered Islamic administration — and Henry II in England",http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia#cite_note-Hussain-21According to Makdisi, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif" in classical Maliki jurisprudence.[2] The Islamic Hawala institution also influenced the development of the agency institution in English common law.[3] Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" may have also originated from Islamic law. These influences have led Makdisi to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[2]
The Waqf in Islamic law, which developed during the 7th-9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the trusts in the English trust law.[23] For example, every Waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries.[24] Under both a Waqf and a trust, "property is reserved, and its usufruct appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general charitable purpose; the corpus becomes inalienable; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries cannot be created" and "without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or mutawillis."[25] The trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries, was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the Waqf institutions they came across in the Middle East.[26][27] Dr. Paul Brand also notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton, who had connections with the Knights Templar. Brand also points out, however, that the Knights Templar were primarily concerned with fighting the Muslims rather than learning from them, making it less likely that they had knowledge of Muslim legal institutions.[20] The introduction of the trust, or "use" was primarily motivated by the need to avoid medieval inheritance taxes. By transferring legal title to a third party, there was no need to pay feudal dues on the death of the father. In those times, it was common for an underage child to lose many of his rights to his feudal overlord if he succeeded before he came of age.
The precursor to the English jury trial was the Lafif trial in classical Maliki jurisprudence, which was developed between the 8th and 11th centuries in North Africa and Islamic Sicily, and shares a number of similarities with the later jury trials in English common law. Like the English jury, the Islamic Lafif was a body of twelve members drawn from the neighbourhood and sworn to tell the truth, who were bound to give a unanimous verdict, about matters "which they had personally seen or heard, binding on the judge, to settle the truth concerning facts in a case, between ordinary people, and obtained as of right by the plaintiff." One of the institutions developed by classical Islamic jurists which influenced civil law was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the Aval in French civil law and the Avallo in Italian law.[3] The "European commenda" limited partnerships (Islamic Qirad) used in civil law as well as the civil law conception of res judicata may also have origins in Islamic law.[2]

The transfer of debt, which was not permissible under Roman law but is practiced in modern civil law, may also have origins in Islamic law.[46] The concept of an agency was also an "institution unknown to Roman law", where it was not possible for an individual to "conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." The concept of an agency was introduced by Islamic jurists, and thus the civil law conception of agency may also have origins in Islamic law
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia#cite_note-46 

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=islam&searchmode=none

http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/islamic_law_evolving.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Journal_of_Constitutional_Law

http://www.jstor.org/pss/604423

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935607

so many sources to link heres  a summary^ (Badr 1978)
^ a b c d e f g h (Makdisi 1999)
^ a b c d e (Badr 1978, pp. 196-8)
^ http://www.mareeg.com/fidsan.php?sid=11068&tirsan=3
^ The Second Era of Ijtihad, 1 St. Thomas University Law Review 341
^ Sharia Law
^ H.A.R. Gibb, "The Sharia", p.5 accessed 16 April 2009
^ Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer in Islamic Law: the Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007, p.3
^ The Sharia and the nation state: who can codify the divine law?, p.2 Accessed 20 September 2005
^ Al-Islam.org by the Ahlul Bayt DILP - Hawza - Advanced Islamic Studies
^ Weiss (2002), pp.3,161
^ Weiss (2002), p.162
^ a b c (El-Gamal 2006, p. 16)
^ a b c d Makdisi, John (2005), Islamic Property Law: Cases and Materials for Comparative Analysis with the Common Law, Carolina Academic Press, ISBN 1594601100
^ a b c d Coulson, Noel James. A history of Islamic law (Islamic surveys). Oxford: University Press, 1964.
^ a b c Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
^ Liebesny, Majid &, and Herbert J. (Editors) Khadduri. Law in the Middle East: Volume I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law. Washington D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1955.
^ a b c d e Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030. In History Reference Center[database online]. Available from Snowden Library (accessed February 11, 2008).
^ Hallaq 1997, Brown 1996, Aslan 2006
^ a b Mukul Devichand (24 September 2008). "Is English law related to Muslim law?". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
^ (El-Gamal 2006, pp. 15-6)
^ a b Hussain, Jamila (2001), "Book Review: The Justice of Islam by Lawrence Rosen", Melbourne University Law Review 30
^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
^ (Gaudiosi 1988, pp. 1237-40)
^ (Gaudiosi 1988, p. 1246)
^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
^ (Gaudiosi 1988, pp. 1244-5)
^ Jackson, Sherman (January 1995), "Review: Islamic Law and Jurisprudence: Studies in Honor of Farhat J. Ziadeh by Nicholas Heer Sherman Jackson", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54 (1): 68–9, doi:10.1086/373733
^ (Badr 1984, pp. 167-8)
^ Makdisi, John (1985-6)), "Formal Rationality in Islamic Law and the Common Law", Cleveland State Law Review 34: 97–112
^ Islam, Muhammad Wohidul (1998), "Dissolution of Contract in Islamic Law", Arab Law Quarterly 13 (4): 336–368, doi:10.1163/026805598125826184
^ (Makdisi 1999, pp. 1703-16)
^ Quraishi, Asifa (2006), "Interpreting the Qur'an and the Constitution: Similarities in the Use of Text, Tradition, and Reason in Islamic and American Jurisprudence", Cardozo Law Review 28: 67–121 [68]:

again civil rigths under sharia law are well known,also as just shown,many western laws,were copies of islamic law institutions,taken over by inquistors and norman conquests.now for her next nonsense(WESTERN HERITAGE of ENLIGHTENMENT vs ISLAM)

first of all there would be no age of enligthenment if it wanst for islam.there wouldnt even have been a renaussaunce.lol

lets start with where europe was during dark ages.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_AgesThe concept of a Dark Age was created in the 1330s by the Italian scholar Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), and was originally intended as a sweeping criticism of the character of Late Latin literature.[5][6] Petrarch regarded the centuries since the fall of Rome as "dark" compared to the light of classical antiquity. Later historians expanded the term to refer to the transitional period between Roman times and the High Middle Ages, including not only the lack of Latin literature, but also a lack of contemporary written history, general demographic decline, limited building activity and material cultural achievements in general. Popular culture has further expanded on the term as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope

dark ages for who?not for islam,islamic civilization was at its highest while most europeans were in dark ages.from islamic spain and portugal also known as andaluz,to islamic sicily,northern africa,bagdad,damascus,even turkey,it was far from dark,in fact it was the ligth of all civilization in world.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_AgeThe Islamic Golden Age or the Islamic Renaissance,[1] is traditionally dated from the 7th to 13th centuries C.E.,[2][3] but has been extended to the 15th[citation needed] century by some recent scholarship. During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders in the Islamic world contributed to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own.[4] Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-Turner-3Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-9Religious freedom, though society was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries.[5] Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[11]"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be upon you and the blessings of God!"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-10The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.[12] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.[13]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age#cite_note-11number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[14] and psychiatric hospital,[15] the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute[14] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times)he first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century.[17] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[18] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.[19]By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books. In the whole al-Andalus, 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year.[20] The library of Cairo had two million books,[21] while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.[22] For instance, Jamil Ragip, an historian of science from McGill University, says that 'less than 5% of the available material has been studied.'[23] A Russian historian gives an idea of the numerical quantity of these manuscripts and works always findable:
"The results of the Arab scholars' literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current... These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials"[24]Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymath scholars, who were known as "Hakeems", each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later "Renaissance Men" (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period.[30][31] During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.[30]

Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Avicenna, al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Averroes, al-Suyuti,[32] Geber,[33] Abbas Ibn Firnas,[34] Alhacen,[35] Ibn al-Nafis,[36] Ibn Khaldun,[37] al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.[30]Early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[48] where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[49] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included early trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[46] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[50] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[51] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[52] and lawsuits.[53] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[54][55] Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[46]

The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.

Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have been closer to proto-capitalism, some scholars have also found a number of parallels between Islamic economic jurisprudence and communism, including the Islamic ideas of zakat and riba.[Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[57] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[58] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[59] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[45] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[60]A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.

Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallization, purification, oxidization, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.[75]The traditional view of Islamic science was that it was chiefly a preserver and transmitter of ancient knowledge.[86] For example, Donald Lach argues that modern science originated in Europe as an amalgam of medieval technology and Greek learning.[87] These views have been disputed in recent times, with some scholars suggesting that Muslim scientists laid the foundations for modern science,[88][89][90][91][92] for their development of early scientific methods and an empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.[93] Some scholars have referred to this period as a "Muslim scientific revolution",[94][95][96][97] a term which expresses the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim scientific achievements,[98] and should not to be confused with the early modern European Scientific Revolution leading to the rise of modern science.[99][100][101] Edward Grant argues that modern science was due to the cumulative efforts of the Hellenic, Islamic and Latin civilizations.[102]Early scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered the pioneer of experimental physics.[93][103] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[104][105]

Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[106] and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception[107][108] is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology.[1
The earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha in Syria. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.[110]

The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.[111]Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[95] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun,[112] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,[113] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[114] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[115] the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[116] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[117] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[118] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[95] the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi's early hypothesis on "circular inertia."[119]Chemistry
Main article: Alchemy (Islam)

Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) is considered a pioneer of chemistry,[122][123] as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still, retort,[75] and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation,[124] liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation and evaporation.[75]

The study of traditional alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals were first refuted by al-Kindi,[125] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[126] Avicenna,[127] and Ibn Khaldun. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory of humorism false using an experimental method.[128] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[129] Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.[91][89]Mathematics
Main article: Islamic mathematics

Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī,[130][131] the invention of spherical trigonometry,[132] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[133] and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.Medicine
Main article: Islamic medicine
Further information: Islamic psychology, Bimaristan, and Ophthalmology in medieval Islam

Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Soranus, Celsus and Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[134][135][136]

Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine, including anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences, physiology, surgery, etc. They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals,[137] including the first medical schools[138] and psychiatric hospitals.[139] Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.[140] Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles and smallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen's humorism false.[128]

Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery,[141] with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[142] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[143] and bone saw.[75] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics.[142]
 
The Persian scientist Avicenna introduced experimental medicine, discovered contagious diseases, introduced quarantine and clinical trials, and described many anaesthetics and medical and therapeutic drugs, in The Canon of Medicine.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine,[144] with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for introducing systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology,[145] the discovery of contagious disease, introduction of quarantine to limit their spread, introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[146] randomized controlled trials,[147][148] efficacy tests,[149][150] and clinical pharmacology,[151] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[152] distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, nervous ailments,[137] use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.[142]

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon.[153] In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.[154] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals.[155]

Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology,[156] as he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation[157] and coronary circulation,[158][159] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages."[160] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[161] and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation,[162] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc.[163]

Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors.[164] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[165] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[4]

[edit]
Physics
Main article: Islamic physics

The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[166] a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,[167] for initiating a scientific revolution in optics[168] and visual perception.[169]

The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni,[170] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[171][172] and Avicenna.[173][174] The proportionality between force and acceleration, considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics" and foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[175] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[176] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[177] Ibn al-Haytham,[178] and al-Khazini.[179] Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus[180] was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna[173] and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle's Physics as well as the Neoplatonist tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.[181]

[edit]
Other sciences
Main article: Islamic science
Further information: Islamic geography, Islamic psychology, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early Islam

Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).

Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),[182] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences[183] such as demography,[184] economics,[185] cultural history,[186] historiography[187] and sociology),[188] among others.Main articles: Islamic philosophy and Early Islamic philosophy
Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy, Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400), and List of Muslim philosophers
See also: Islamic theology, Avicennism, Averroism, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early Islam
 
Averroes, an Arab Muslim polymath is the founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[214]

Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas. This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.

From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[214] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[215]

Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[216] condition of possibility, materialism,[217] and Molyneux's Problem.[218] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[219] Gottfried Leibniz,[199] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[220] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[221] and Samuel Hartlib.[200]

Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonides[222][223] and Christian medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas[224] and René Descartes, who expressed similar ideas to that of al-Ghazali in Discourse on the Method.[225] However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[226]

Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[188] and social philosophy.
 as we can see there would be no renassaunce nor age of enligthenment without the muslims.

hair once again refuted and crushed.\

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ok now for her lie that muhammed peace be upon him was apedophile

.i suggest hairless elarn basic math,before she reads,seems she has the math skills of a 7 year old,i would advise she or he gets a calculator for this simple math that even my 12 year old son could do.Age of Aisha (ra) at time of marriagehttp://www.muslim.org/islam/aisha-age.htmThe real age of Aisha was 18 or 19 at the time the marriage was consummated.http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Is_it_true_that_Prophet_Muhammad_married_Aisha_when_she_was_only_six_years_oldhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/16141277/Did-Prophet-Muhammad-really-marry-a-9-year-old-This-is-a-lie-spread-about-Our-Beloved-Prophet